Bertrand Russell

Scepticism, while logically impeccable, is psychologically impossible, and there is an element of frivolous insincerity in any philosophy which pretends to accept it. Moreover, if scepticism is to be theoretically defensible it must reject all inferences from what is experienced; a partial scepticism, such as the denial of physical events experienced by no one, or a solipsism which allows events in my future or in my unremembered past, has no logical justification, since it must admit principles of inference which lead to beliefs that it rejects.

Bertrand Russell, Human Knowledge: Its Scope and Its Limits, London, 1948, p. 9

Walter Kaufmann

Analytic philosophy does not only develop the intellectual conscience, train the mind, and combine subtlety with scrupulous precision; above all, it teaches people to think critically and makes them instinctively antiauthoritarian. There is something democratic in this way of thinking: a proposition is a proposition, whether written by a student, a professor, or a Plato; the laws of logic are no respecters of persons.

Walter Kaufmann, Critique of Religion and Philosophy, Princeton, 1958, p. 25

Quentin Smith

I don’t think philosophers have careers. Business executives or bankers can properly be said to have careers, but devoting one’s life to pursuing the basic truths cannot be considered a career. I experience philosophizing to be the same thing as being alive. For example, I do not understand the distinction between “work” and “relaxation”, or the concept of a “vacation”. How can one take a vacation from thinking about what the point of human existence is, or whether it has any point at all? And how can philosophizing be classified as one’s “working hours”? As far as I can see, philosophizing hours are not “working hours” but instead should be viewed as the hours at which one is awake rather than asleep. Others may call it “work”, but I would call it “doing what it is natural for any conscious being to do”, trying to figure everything out.

Quentin Smith, ‘An interview with Quentin Smith’

Noam Chomsky

It’s very hard to live with cognitive dissonance: only a real cynic can believe one thing and say another. So whether it’s a totalitarian system or a free system, the people who are most useful to the system of power are the ones who actually believe what they say, and they’re the ones who will typically make it through.

Noam Chomsky, Understanding Power, New York, 2002, p. 112

Mary Midgley

I am simply pointing out what the history of ethics shows all too clearly—how much our thinking has been shaped by what our stages omit to mention. The Greek philosophers never really raised the problem of slavery till towards the end of their speech, and then few of them did so with conviction. This happened even though it lay right in the path of their enquiries into political justice and the value of the individual soul. Christianity did raise that problem, because its class background was different and because the world in the Christian era was already in turmoil, so that men were not presented with the narcotic of a happy stability. But Christianity itself did not, until quite recently, raise the problem o the morality of punishment, and particularly of eternal punishment. This failure to raise central questions was not, in either case, complete. Once can find very intelligent and penetrating criticisms of slavery occurring from time to time in Greek writings—even in Aristotle’s defence of that institution. But they are mostly like Rawls’ remark here. They conclude that “this should be investigated some day”. The same thing happens with Christian writings concerning punishment, except that the consideration, “this is a great mystery”, acts as an even more powerful paralytic to though. Not much more powerful, however. Natural inertia, when it coincides with vested interest or the illusion of vested interest, is as strong as gravitation.

Mary Midgley, ‘Duties concerning islands’, Encounter, vol. 60, no. 2 (February 1983), pp. 36-43.

George Orwell

With the development of television, and the technical advance which made it possible to receive and transmit simultaneously on the same instrument, private life came to an end. Every citizen, or at least every citizen important enough to be worth watching, could be kept for twenty-four hours a day under the eyes of the police and in the sound of official propaganda, with all other channels of communication closed. The possibility of enforcing not only complete obedience to the will of the State, but uniformity of opinion of all subjects, now existed for the first time.

George Orwell, Nineteen Eighty-Four, 1949, pt. 2

Jeremy Bentham

In looking over the catalogue of human actions (says a partizan of this principle) in order to determine which of them are to be marked with the seal of disapprobation, you need but to take counsel of your own feelings: whatever you find in yourself a propensity to condemn, is wrong for that very reason. For the same reason it is also meet for punishment: in what proportion it is adverse to utility, or whether it be adverse to utility at all, is a matter that makes no difference. In that same proportion also is it meet for punishment: if you hate much, punish much: if you hate little, punish little: punish as you hate. If you hate not at all, punish not at all: the fine feelings of the soul are not to be overborne and tyrannized by the harsh and rugged dictates of political utility.

Jeremy Bentham, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, London, 1789, chap. 2, sect. 13

Paul Feyerabend

These may be the last days. We are taking them one at a time. My latest paralysis was the result of some bleeding inside the brain. My concern is that after my departure something remains of me, not papers, not final philosophical declarations, but love. I hope that that will remain and will not be too much affected by the manner of my final departure, which I would like to be peaceful, like a coma, without a death struggle, leaving bad memories behind. Whatever happens now, our small family can live forever—Grazina, me, and our love. That is what I would like to happen, not an intellectual survival but the survival of love.

Paul Feyerabend, Killing Time: The Autobiography of Paul Feyerabend, Chicago, 1995, p. 181

George Orwell

He went back to the table, dipped his pen, and wrote:

To the future or to the past, to a time when thought is free, when men are different from one another and do not live alone—to a time when truth exists and what is done cannot be undone:

From the age of uniformity, from the age of solitude, from the age of Big Brother, from the age of doublethink—greetings!

George Orwell, Nineteen Eighty-Four, 1949, pt. 1

Arthur Schopenhauer

Denn, wie unser physischer Weg auf der Erde immer nur eine Linie, keine Fläche ist; so müssen wir im Leben, wenn wir Eines ergreifen und besitzen wollen, unzähliges Anderes, rechts und links, entsagend, liegen lassen. Können wir uns dazu nich entschließen, sondern greifen, wie Kinder auf dem Jahrmarkt, nach Allem was im Vorübergehen reizt; dann ist dies das verkehrte Bestreben, die Linie unseres Wegs in eine Fläche zu verwandeln: wir laufen sodann im Zickzack, irrlichterlieren hin und her und gelangen zu nichts.

Arthur Schopenhauer, Die Kunst, glücklich zu sein, sect. 3

Richard Dawkins

Intelligent life on a planet comes of age when it first works out the reason for its own existence. If superior creatures from space ever visit earth, the first question they will ask, in order to assess the level of our civilization, is: ‘Have they discovered evolution yet?’ Living organisms had existed on earth, without ever knowing why, for over three thousand million years before the truth finally dawned on one of them.

Richard Dawkins, The Selfish Gene, 2nd ed., Oxford, 1989, p. 1

Julian Huxley

It is as if man had been suddenly appointed managing director of the biggest business of all, the business of evolution—appointed without being asked if he wanted it, and without proper warning and preparation. What is more, he can’t refuse the job. Whether he wants it or not, whether he is conscious of what he is doing or not, he is in point of fact determining the future direction of evolution on this earth. This is his inescapable destiny, and the sooner he realizes it and starts believing in it, the better for all concerned.

Julian Huxley, ‘Transhumanism’, in New Bottles for New Wine, London, 1957, pp. 13-14

Bertrand Russell

Through the long years
I sought peace
I found ecstasy, I found anguish,
I found madness,
I found loneliness,
I found the solitary pain
that gnaws the heart,
But peace I did not find.

Now, old & near my end,
I have known you,
And, knowing you,
I have found both ecstasy & peace
I know rest
After so many lonely years.
I know what life & love may be.
Now, if I sleep
I shall sleep fulfilled.

Bertrand Russell, The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell: 1872-1914, London, 1967, dedication [‘To Edith’]

R. M. Hare

Another argument commonly used against aggregationism is also hard to understand (Rawls, A Theory of Justice, p. 27). This is the objection that utilitarianism “does not take seriously the distinction between persons”. To explain this objection: it is said that, if we claim that there is a duty to promote maximal preference satisfaction regardless of its distribution, we are treating a great interest of one as of less weight than the lesser interests of a great many, provided that the latter add up in aggregate to more than the former. For example, if I can save five patients moderate pain at the cost of not saving one patient severe pain, I should do so if the interests of the five in the relief of their pain is greater in aggregate than the interest of the one in the relief of his (or hers).

But to think in the way that utilitarians have to think about this kind of example is not to ignore the difference between persons. Why should anybody want to say this? Utilitarians are perfectly well aware that A, B and C in my example are different persons people. They are not blind. All they are doing is trying to do justice between the interests of these people. It is hard to see how else one could do this except by showing them all equal respect, and that, as we have seen, leads straight to aggregationism.

R. M. Hare, in Helga Kuhse and Peter Singer (eds.), A Companion to Bioethics, Oxford, 1998, p. 83

George Herbert

Sweet day! so cool, so calm, so bright,
The bridall of the earth and skie :
The dew shall weep thy fall to-night ;
For thou must die.

Sweet rose, whose hue angrie and brave
Bids the rash gazer wipe his eye:
Thy root is ever in its grave,
And thou must die.

Sweet spring! full of sweet days and roses,
A box where sweets compacted lie,
My musick shows ye have your closes,
And all must die.

Onely a sweet and vertuous soul,
Like season’d timber, never gives ;
But though the whole world turn to coal,
Then chiefly lives.

George Herbert, ‘Vertue’, 1663

Domingo Faustino Sarmiento

El resultado del sistema gubernativo es, pues, exonerar a los pudientes y querientes de costear la educación de sus propios hijos haciendo que las rentas del Estado le economicen su propio dinero, mientras que el pobre que no educa a sus hijos paga por la educación de los hijos de los acomodados.

Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, ‘Catedral al norte’, in Educación común, 1869

Percy Bysshe Shelley

A vision on his sleep
There came, a dream of hopes that never yet
Had flushed his cheek. He dreamed a veiled maid
Sate near him, talking in low solemn tones.
Her voice was like the voice of his own soul
Heard in the calm of thought; its music long,
Like woven sounds of streams and breezes, held
His inmost sense suspended in its web
Of many-colored woof and shifting hues.
Knowledge and truth and virtue were her theme,
And lofty hopes of divine liberty,
Thoughts the most dear to him, and poesy,
Herself a poet. Soon the solemn mood
Of her pure mind kindled through all her frame
A permeating fire; wild numbers then
She raised, with voice stifled in tremulous sobs
Subdued by its own pathos; her fair hands
Were bare alone, sweeping from some strange harp
Strange symphony, and in their branching veins
The eloquent blood told an ineffable tale.
The beating of her heart was heard to fill
The pauses of her music, and her breath
Tumultuously accorded with those fits
Of intermitted song. Sudden she rose,
As if her heart impatiently endured
Its bursting burden; at the sound he turned,
And saw by the warm light of their own life
Her glowing limbs beneath the sinuous veil
Of woven wind, her outspread arms now bare,
Her dark locks floating in the breath of night,
Her beamy bending eyes, her parted lips
Outstretched, and pale, and quivering eagerly.
His strong heart sunk and sickened with excess
Of love. He reared his shuddering limbs, and quelled
His gasping breath, and spread his arms to meet
Her panting bosom:–she drew back awhile,
Then, yielding to the irresistible joy,
With frantic gesture and short breathless cry
Folded his frame in her dissolving arms.
Now blackness veiled his dizzy eyes, and night
Involved and swallowed up the vision; sleep,
Like a dark flood suspended in its course,
Rolled back its impulse on his vacant brain.

Percy Bysshe Shelley, ‘Alastor: or, the Spirit of Solitude’, 1816, pp. 149-191

Noam Chomsky

“Growth” is a funny sort of concept. For example, our GNP increases every time we build a prison. Well, okay, it’s growth in a sense, but it’s kind of a dumb measure. Has our life improved if we have more people in prison?

Noam Chomsky, ‘Interview with Jerry Brown’, in SPIN Magazine, 1993

Florentino Ameghino

Preguntadle a un inglés: ¿cuál es la raza humana más perfecta? La sajona, responderá imperturbablemente. Haced la misma pregunta a un francés o a un italiano, y os contestará: la latina. Si interrogáis a un chino, sus compatriotas constituyen la raza más perfecta y el pueblo más avanzado de la tierra; a los europeos llámanlos con desprecio los bárbaros de Occidente. Así, si nosotros preguntáramos: ¿cuál de los diferentes grupos de mamíferos puede considerarse el más perfecto y cuál de ellos tiene derecho a figurar a la cabeza del reino animal? El hombre, nos contestarían unánimes. Nuestro voto formaría una nota discordante en medio del concordante coro.

Quizá si pudiéramos hacer la misma pregunta a un elefante, a un león o a un caballo y ellos pudieran contestarnos, tendríamos una segunda edición de las contestaciones del inglés, el francés, el chino y el italiano; pero como esto no es posible, vamos a reemplazarlos, figurándonos por momentos que somos un proboscídeo que va a examinar el raro bípedo o un león que contempla una media docena de víctimas distintas para hacerse una idea de la presa de más alto precio.

Florentino Ameghino, Filogenia, Buenos Aires, 1884, pp. 115-116