The identification problem and the inference problem

Abstract

The Identification and Inference problems challenge the ‘relations of universals’ theory of laws by questioning the nature of the law-making relation and how it entails empirical regularities. These issues are resolved by grounding the theory in the perception of singular causation. Because token-token causal sequences are epistemically primitive and frequently exhibit patterns, such regularities justify the postulation of universals. The Identification Problem is addressed by identifying the law-making relation between universals as the causal relation itself—the same relation experienced in singular interactions, but hypothesized to hold between types rather than tokens. This identification facilitates a solution to the Inference Problem: if a causal relation holds between universals, it is conceptually or analytically necessary that tokens of those universals will instantiate the corresponding causal effects. Under this framework, laws of nature are higher-order atomic facts that explain the uniformity of the physical world. This account demonstrates how laws as relations of universals can both entail and explain regularities, providing a mechanism that covers causal laws and potentially extends to probabilistic ones, though non-causal laws remain a subject for further inquiry. – AI-generated abstract.